Glossary

See under Three Dharma Seals

A traditionally ordained celibate male (bhikkhu) or female (bhikkhunī) monastic, pledged to following the approximately 227 bhikkhu or 311 bhikkhunī precepts (numbers vary in different traditions), which are found in the sacred texts known as the Vinaya.

The legendary founder of the Zen (Chan) School. Known as the twenty-eighth Indian ancestor, Bodhidharma is said to have brought the practice and teaching of Zen from India to China (see further under Chan below). He is famous for his fierce and uncompromising approach to practice and teaching, typified in reports of his initial encounter with the Chinese Emperor Wu (quoted below), of his sitting and facing a wall in a cave at Shaolin without speaking for nine years, and in the legend of his cutting off his eyelids to prevent himself from falling asleep while meditating. It is said that as the eyelids hit the ground, the first tea plants sprang up. The first koan in the Hekiganroku begins as follows: Emperor Wu of Liang asked the Great Master Bodhidharma, ‘What is the first principle of the holy teachings?’ Bodhidharma said, ‘Emptiness without holiness.’ The Emperor said, ‘Who is standing before me?’ Bodhidharma replied, ‘I don’t know.’ The Emperor did not understand. Bodhidharma’s reply of ‘I don’t know’ has been called the most famous response in Zen; Zen practice continually throws each of us back on our own not-knowing.

A bodhisattva is anyone in whom the spirit of bodhicitta has arisen, and who has therefore taken a vow to achieve enlightenment for the sake of all beings. In the Theravāda tradition in particular, ‘the Bodhisatta’ refers to the Buddha during the years (and lifetimes) before he had attained his Complete Perfect Enlightenment. In the Mahāyāna tradition, many great, archetypal Bodhisattvas are venerated, such as Kannon (Avalokiteśvara), the Bodhisattva of Compassion; Mañjuśrī, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom; and Samantabhadra, the Bodhisattva of Skillful Means or Enlightened Action. Additionally, however, the Zen teaching is that each of us who sincerely makes the effort to walk in the path of the Buddha is also a Bodhisattva.

Literally, ‘the one who is awake’, Buddha is a word used by Shakyamuni when he was asked to explain who he was. In the Mahāyāna view, Shakyamuni, the Buddha of our own age, is only one of countless billions of awakened Buddhas who populate the universe offering support to sentient beings. The word can also be used to refer to the awakened nature of the universe which is inherently present within each one of us. See also under Three Jewels.

The word ‘Zen’ is the Japanese form of the Chinese word ‘Chan,’ which is, in turn, the Chinese form of the Sanskrit (Indian) word ‘Dhyāna’ meaning ‘meditation’ or ‘concentration’. In the Buddha’s teaching, Dhyāna is one of the eight essential aspects of the path to liberation (see under Eightfold Path), and the Chinese Chan school of Buddhism is the one that put special emphasis on this aspect of the practice. The evolution of the word Dhyāna to Chan and then to Zen follows the historical path of the teachings as they moved from India to China and Korea and then to Japan. Bodhidharma brought this school of Buddhism to China in the fifth century, and it reached Japan in the twelfth century.

‘Giving,’ the first of the Paramitas. Colloquially, ‘dāna’ is often used to refer to donations to a Dharma Centre or to a teacher, priest or monastic, and in particular to the food offerings of the laity upon which monastics depend for their sustenance, as they do not handle money.

See under Pratītyasamutpāda.

The teachings of the Buddha, the Law of the universe, or simply ‘the way things are’ (which is what the teachings of the Buddha reveal); dharma (with a small ‘d’) is most often used in the plural (dharmas) to mean ‘things, phenomena, the stuff of our physical and non-physical world’. See also under Three Jewels.

One designated by their teacher in a public ceremony as having embodied the transmitted teaching and as having the aptitude, spiritual maturity and upright character required to teach others effectively.

The Japanese word dokusan means literally to ‘go alone’, and in Zen training it refers to a one-to-one meeting between a teacher and student.

Suffering, unsatisfactoriness. A possibly false but oft-quoted etymology makes the word ‘dukkha’ refer to an axle-hole that is not properly fitted to its axle. In other words, dukkha encompasses not just the more obvious types of pain and loss, but also the way that our lives and circumstances so often feel off-kilter or in need of fixing. The Buddha delineated three types of suffering, related to the Three Dharma Seals: the suffering of suffering (painful physical and emotional experiences), the suffering of change (impermanence), and the existential suffering of being. The last stems from our sense of separation or alienation – our belief in our own independent existence.

The teaching that all things are empty of a separate self or of an absolute, independent, or eternal existence. From the positive perspective this is the doctrine of Pratītyasamutpāda or Interbeing. Insight into emptiness is a goal both of practice and of Madhyamaka philosophy and the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras. The great Indian teacher Nāgārjuna was instrumental in the development of these last two. See also under Bodhicitta.

The Four Noble Truths are: the truth of suffering, the truth of the causes of suffering, the truth of the cessation of suffering, and the truth of the way out of suffering. Though these truths have long been referred to in English as the Noble Truths, an equally valid or perhaps preferable translation would be Ennobling Truths. This captures the way in which these truths may act upon us when we start to live by them. (See further the Wikipedia article on the Four Noble Truths under ‘Truths for the noble ones’.)

The Blue Cliff Record is a koan collection compiled by Xuedou Chongxian (980–1052; Setchō in Japanese). It was later commented upon by Yuanwu Keqin (1063–1135; Engo in Japanese). Though chronologically an earlier collection than the Mumonkan, it is generally the second book of koans taken up by students in dokusan.

See under Pratītyasamutpāda.

The Bodhisattva of Compassion. See Bodhisattva.

Founder of the Rochester Zen Center and author of the Zen classic The Three Pillars of Zen as well as many other books. For more information see AZC Teachers and lineage.

Walking meditation.

Current Abbot of the Rochester Zen Center. Dharma Heir of Rōshi Kapleau and teacher of Amala-sensei. For more information see AZC Teachers and lineage.

Linji Yixuan (d. 866), or Rinzai Gigen in Japanese, was one of the most renowned Chinese Zen masters of the Tang Dynasty period (often known as ‘the Golden Age of Zen’) and the founder of the Linji teaching lineage, which became the Rinzai school in Japan (see under ‘Sōtō and Rinzai’). Linji was known for his fierce style of teaching which included many shouts and blows. His sayings and teachings are recorded in the Linji-lu or Record of Linji.

The ‘Middle Way’ philosophy of the Mahāyāna branch of Buddhism has its origins in the work of Nāgārjuna. Madhyamaka teaches that no single philosophical position can be constructed and defended as ultimate by logical means; rather arguments pro and con may always be marshalled. In particular neither a nihilistic nor an absolutist view of reality can be ultimately defended.

The Bodhisattva of Wisdom. See Bodhisattva.

The Buddhist tempter; a personification of evil and death. Mara appeared to the Buddha, as he does to us, as the inner voice questioning our own worthiness or ability to persevere on the spiritual journey.

The Mumonkan, called in English the The Gateless Barrier or The Gateless Gate is one of the collections of koans that are part of the Zen koan curriculum, and in the Mumonkan each koan is accompanied by a commentary and a verse written by Master Mumon (1183–1260, Wumen in Chinese), who assembled the collection.

Foundational philosopher of the Mahāyāna. Madhyamaka (Middle Way) philosophy and the Prajñāpāramitā (Perfection of Wisdom) sūtras are based in his teaching. See also under Emptiness.

The classical languages of the Buddhist scriptures. The words of the Buddha were transmitted orally for approximately the first five hundred years after his Parinirvāna, but were eventually recorded in the Pali language in the first century C.E. These texts of the ‘Pali canon’ form the basis of Theravāda teaching and are accepted by Mahāyāna practitioners as well. At close to the same time that the Pali canon was coming into being, other writings also appeared which reflected the teachings of the then-developing Mahāyāna school. These writings were mostly in Sanskrit, the most ancient classical language of India. Pali is closely related to Sanskrit, but is somewhat more simplified and modernised. See also Sūtta, Sūtra.

The pāramitās, most commonly listed as six in number, are the ‘perfections’, or qualities to be perfected by a bodhisattva on the path to realisation. They are sometimes called the bodhisattva trainings.

See under The Threefold Training

The Twelve Links of Dependent Co-arising is a subtle and complex teaching exploring the origins of our world, our lives and our consciousness, and the ways in which they actually co-arise. Depending which Sūtta is studied, there may be a different number of links given, but the most popular presentation is of Twelve Links as follows: ignorance, karmic formations, consciousness, name-and-form, sixfold sense bases, contact, feeling, craving, attachment, becoming, birth, suffering. The links are very often depicted, each with a traditional illustration, in the form of a wheel (the Wheel of Life). The circular presentation helps to emphasise that the links do not (or do not solely) appear in temporal fashion, one after the other, but that they co-arise. At the centre of the wheel are three animals representing the Three Poisons which drive the whole system; the Three Poisons are encircled by the Six Realms of Unenlightened Existence, and these are encircled in turn by the Twelve Links. The whole wheel is held in the clutches of Yama Raja, the Lord of Death.

A traditional Japanese garment that represents the Buddha’s robe in abbreviated form. The sewing and wearing of a rakusu represents a commitment to the Buddhist Path and to a particular teaching lineage, and there are different styles and colours of rakusu for lay practitioners, for priests, and for teachers.

For the Rinzai school, see ‘Sōtō and Rinzai’. For Zen Master Rinzai, see under Linji.

See under The Threefold Training.

The world of unenlightened existence, of cause and effect and karma. This is the world depicted by the Wheel of Life (see under Pratītyasamutpāda) and marked by suffering, impermanence and instability. See also under Nirvāna.

The community of Buddhist practitioners. At various times and places ‘sangha’ has had somewhat varying connotations. Historically in the Theravāda it has often been used to refer to the ordained monastic Sangha only, with lay people seen as supporters of the Sangha. However there are also early references to the Arya Sangha, meaning just those practitioners (whether ordained or lay) who have attained enlightenment, as well as references to the Fourfold Sangha of male monastics, female monastics, laymen and laywomen. In the Mahāyāna, and particularly in the West, the term is most frequently used for any Buddhist community that practices together as well as for the community of all Buddhist practitioners worldwide. Even more expansively, all those who are working to uncover truth and to live in accordance with ethical principles may be seen as Sangha, whether or not they subscribe to specifically Buddhist teachings. See also under Three Jewels.

Great eighth-century Indian teacher and author of The Way of the Bodhisattva, a work which continues to inspire practitioners with its call to compassion and bodhicitta. Among many famous verses from this work is one which is said to be a favourite prayer of the Dalai Lama:

For as long as space remains,

For as long as sentient beings remain,

Until then may I too remain

To dispel the miseries of the world.

See under The Threefold Training.

There are traditionally six realms into which those still bound to the Wheel of Birth and Death may be born: the Hell Realms, the Hungry Ghost Realm, the Animal Realm, the realm of the Asuras or jealous gods, the Human Realm and the realm of the Devas or happy gods. Birth in the human realm is considered precious because it can provide optimal circumstances for attaining enlightenment: sufficient suffering or dissatisfaction to spur us to practice, combined, ideally, with sufficient leisure and opportunity to pursue it. While birth in the blissful Deva realms may seem preferable, the Devas remain attached to their pleasures and comforts which will, however, eventually fade, even if only after many eons. Today the Six Realms are often interpreted from a psychological perspective as representing different mind states to which we are all subject, or as states which human beings are capable of creating for themselves here on earth through violence, addictions and so forth. See also under Pratītyasamutpāda.

See under Emptiness.

‘Sūtra’ is the Sanskrit form and ‘sūtta’ the Pali form of the word that refers to texts containing the words of the Buddha.

Buddhism as practiced today in different parts of the world can be divided into three main branches: Theravāda (‘the way of the elders’), Mahāyāna (‘the great vehicle’) and Vajrayāna (‘the diamond/ thunderbolt vehicle’). The first is most commonly practiced in Southeast Asia, the second in East Asia, and the third in Tibet and adjacent regions. As its name implies, Theravādan Buddhism is the most historically conservative. Its teaching and practices hew closely to the Pali canon. The traditions of the Mahāyāna developed in ancient India alongside those of the Theravāda, but emphasised a perhaps more popular stream of teachings, focused on the veneration of great Bodhisattvas, the liberation of all beings and the conviction that all are inherently Buddhas. Vajrayāna is the youngest tradition of the three. Its teachings were brought from India at a time when Tantric or esoteric practices were dominant there, and these form the hallmark of the Vajrayāna. Some scholars classify the Vajrayāna as a branch of Mahāyāna Buddhism, while others see it as a separate branch altogether. All Buddhist practitioners accept as valid the teachings of the Pali canon; practitioners of the Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna adhere as well to the teachings of the Mahāyāna Sūtras, while Vajrayāna practitioners add in also their own later texts and traditions. See also under Pali and Sanskrit.

Impermanence (aniccā), No-self (anattā), and Suffering (dukkha). Any system of teaching or instruction which does not acknowledge these three characteristics of existence is said to be a non-Buddhist teaching. However, teachers of the Mahāyāna sometimes replace dukkha, suffering, with nirvāna or the end of suffering. See also under dukkha and nirvāna.

Greed, hatred and delusion are known as the Three Poisons. Just as the precepts are descriptive of enlightened action, so the Three Poisons are descriptive of the unenlightened mind. We believe that we are separate from ‘things out there’ (our basic delusion), and so we react to things either by liking or disliking, by grasping or pushing away, by saying ‘I want this’ (greed) or ‘I don’t want that’ (hatred or aversion). But as we learn to recognise these poisons in our own minds, we need to see also how they lie at the base of our social ills: wars, exploitation, and environmental degradation; and we need to acknowledge not only the inner work but the outer work that still remains to be done.

Śīla (pronounced ‘Sheela’, ethical behaviour), Samādhi (development of meditative concentration) and Prajñā (wisdom). Progress along the Buddhist path is taught as equally dependent on each of these three elements. The last, Wisdom, can refer both to the study of Buddhist scripture and teachings as well as to the transcendental wisdom of enlightenment.

See under Theravāda, Mahāyāna, Vajrayāna.

Insight or seeing things as they are. ‘Vipassana’ is also the name of a widespread school of modern (mostly Western) Theravāda Buddhism which teaches Insight Meditation.

Square meditation mat.

Round meditation cushion.